Nuclearpower
is under serious consideration in over thirty countries which do not currently have it (in a few, not necessarily at government level).
In Europe: Italy, Albania, Portugal, Norway, Poland, Belarus, Estonia, Latvia, Ireland, Turkey.In the Middle East and North Africa: Iran, Gulf states including UAE, Yemen, Israel, Syria, Jordan, Egypt, Tunisia, Libya, Algeria, Morocco.
In central and southern Africa: Nigeria, Ghana, Uganda, Namibia.
In South America: Chile, Venezuela.
In central and southern Asia: Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Bangladesh.
In SE Asia: Indonesia, Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, Australia, New Zealand.
Despite the large number of these emerging countries, they are not expected to contribute very much to the expansion of nuclear capacity in the foreseeable future - the main growth will come in countries where the technology is already well established.
In all countries governments need to create the environment for investment in nuclear power, including professional regulatory regime, policies on nuclear waste management and decommissioning, and involvement with international non-proliferation and insurance arrangements.
In different countries, institutional arrangements vary. Usually governments are heavily involved in planning, and in developing countries also financing and operation. As emerging nuclear nations lack a strong cadre of nuclear engineers and scientists, construction is often on a turnkey basis, with the reactor vendor assuming all technical and commercial risks in delivering a functioning plant on time and at a particular price. Alternatively the vendor may be set up a consortium to build, own and operate the plant. As the industry becomes more international, new arrangements are likely, including public-private partnerships.
The International Atomic Energy Agency has published a small book Considerations to Launch a Nuclear Power Programme(2007 ) which addresses the issues involved in a country deciding upon and implementing a nuclear power program. In particular it looks at those considerations before a decision is made, before construction starts and subsequently. It then briefly covers twelve factors for consideration.
In January 2008, the French Nuclear Safety Authority (ASN) indicated that it would pay attention to new nuclear power projects in countries with no experience in this area. It said that the development of nuclear industry in a country needs at least 10 to 15 years in order to build up skills in safety and control and to define a regulatory framework. In a June 2008 position paper the five-member commission of ASN said that building the infrastructure needed to safely operate a nuclear power plant required time and that it would be selective about providing assistance. The commissioners said ASN would give priority to countries using French technologies, that it would apply "geophysical, economic, political, social, and technical" criteria, and require countries to be party to relevant international treaties. ASN said it takes at least five years to set up the legal and regulatory infrastructure for a nuclear power program, two to ten years to license a new plant, and about five years to build a power plant. That means a "minimum lead time of 15 years" before a new nuclear power plant can be started up in a country that does not already have the required infrastructure.
These comments relate to France's creation of Agency France Nuclear International (AFNI) under its Atomic Energy Commission (CEA) to provide a vehicle for international assistance. AFNI will be focused on helping to set up structures and systems to enable the establishment of civil nuclear programs in countries wanting to develop them, and will draw on all of France's expertise in this. It will be guided by a steering committee comprising representatives of all the ministries involved (Energy, Foreign Affairs, Industry, Research, etc) as well as representatives of other major French nuclear institutions including the CEA itself and probably ASN, though this is yet to be confirmed.

Italy
Electricity consumption in Italy in 2005 was 330 billion kWh, giving per capita consumption of 5640 kWh/yr.In 2006 local production from 81 GWe of plant was 315 billion kWh gross, 50% from gas, 15% from oil, 16% from coal and 14% from hydro. Imports of 50.3 billion kWh (effectively, some 15% of its needs) are required, mostly nuclear power from France . This is equivalent to output from about 7 GWe of capacity at 80%.
Due to the high reliance on oil and gas, as well as imports, Italy's electricity prices are 45% above EU average.
Italy today is now the only G8 country without its own nuclear power, and is the world's largest net importer of electricity.
However, Italy was a pioneer of civil nuclear power and built several reactors which operated 1963-90. But following a referendum in November 1987, provoked by the Chernobyl accident 18 months earlier, work on the nuclear program was largely stopped. In 1988 the government resolved to halt all nuclear construction, shut the remaining reactors and decommission them from 1990. Italy then remained largely inactive in nuclear energy for 15 years.
In 2004 a new Energy Law opened up the possibility of joint venture with foreign companies in relation to nuclear power plants and importing electricity from them. This resulted from a clear change in public opinion, especially among younger people favouring nuclear power for Italy.
In 2005 Electricite de France and Enel signed a co-operation agreement which gives Enel some 200 MWe from the new Flamanville-3 EPR nuclear reactor (1700 MWe) in France, and potentially another 1000 MWe or so from the next five such units built. As well as the 12.5% share, Italy's electric utility Enel will also be involved in design, construction and operation of the plants, which will enhance Italy's power security and improve its economics. A major benefit will be in rebuilding Italy's nuclear skills and competence. Enel is expected to pay about EUR 350 million for its share in the project. Enel subsequently announced it was taking a 12.5% share in the second EPR being constructed in France, at Penly.
Enel has also bought 66% of the Slovak Electric utility which operates six nuclear power reactors, and Enel's investment plan for SE approved in 2005 by the Slovak government includes EUR 1.6 billion for completion of Mochovce nuclear power plant - 942 MWe gross - by 2011-12. Enel then took its equity in Spain’s Endesa, which has a major stake in three nuclear reactors, to 92% in February 2009.
In May 2008 the new Italian government confirmed that it will commence building new nuclear power plants within five years, to reduce the county's great dependence on oil, gas and imported power. It will work towards having 25% of its electricity from nuclear power by 2030, which will require 8 to 10 large new reactors by then. The government introduced a package of nuclear legislation, including measures to set up a national nuclear research and development entity, to expedite licensing of new reactors at existing nuclear power plant sites, and to facilitate licensing of new reactor sites. Enel plans to build new reactors at one of three licensed sites: Garigliano, Latina, or Montalto di Castro. The first two had small early-model reactors operating to 1982 and 1987. At Montalto di Castro two larger reactors were almost complete when the country's November 1987 referendum halted construction.
Several research reactors are operating, including AGN Constanza (since 1960), Uni of Pavia's LENA Triga II (250 kW, since 1965), ENEA's Tapiro (5 kW, since 1971), ENEA's Triga RC-1 (1 MW, since 1960) and a subcritical assembly.
Ansaldo Nucleare, which in conjunction with Canada's AECL, built Cernavoda 2 in Romania, is also involved with international R&D on new reactor systems.
See also Italy paper.

Albania
In 2007 the government proposed construction of a nuclear power plant for both domestic and export supply to Balkans and Italy. In 2009 Croatia supported the proposal, and the two countries agreed to work together on it and invite Montenegro and Bosnia to participate. A proposed site is at Durres. Italian utility Enel is looking into the feasibility of a nuclear plant.

Portugal
Portugal's electricity production is about 47 billion kWh/yr gross and in 2007 this came 27% from coal, 27% from gas and 22% from hydro. Net imports are about 5 TWh/yr from Spain.
Its electricity grid is closely linked with Spain's, so that a large nuclear plant on the Atlantic coast could serve both countries.
In 2004 the government rejected a proposal to introduce nuclear power but this is now being reviewed.

Norway
Norway's electricity is almost entirely hydro. In 2007, 137.7 billion kWh gross was generated, from 29.5 GWe of capacity. Exports and imports vary greatly with the season and hydro situation in Scandinavia. In 2004 net imports were 11.5 TWh and in 2005 net exports were 12 TWh, mostly to and from Sweden. In 2006 imports and exports largely balanced. Per capita use is about 23,000 kWh/yr.
Leaders of Norwegian industry want nuclear energy to supplement hydro. They believe nuclear power based on thorium, which Norway has plenty of, will prevent future energy crises.
A government-appointed committee reported in February 2008 that building thorium-fuelled power reactors was a possibility, which could be tested by using thorium fuel in the country's Halden research reactor.The committee also said that the country should strengthen its international collaboration in nuclear energy and develop its human resources in nuclear science and engineering so as to keep the thorium option open as complementary to the uranium option. "The potential contribution of nuclear energy to a sustainable energy future should be recognised."
The Norwegian Radiation Protection Agency has licensed an underground repository inside a mountain for radioactive waste from the country's oil and gas industry. It will hold 6000 tonnes of NORM waste, and 400 tonnes has already been placed there.

Poland
In 2007 Poland produced some 159 billion kWh gross from 32 GWe of mostly coal plant, giving per capita consumption of 2700 kWh/yr with very high CO2 emissions. Poland has the largest reserves of coal in the EU (14 billion tonnes), and 93% of electricity comes from coal. Poland is a net electricity exporter – 11 bilion kWh in 2006, mostly to Czech Republic and Slovakia. Poland’s own electricity consumption is forecast to grow by 90% to 2025, but the EU has placed stringent restrictions on CO2 emissions. About half of the country's gas supply comes from Russia.
The Polish cabinet decided early in 2005 that for energy diversification and to reduce CO2 and sulfur emissions the country should move immediately to introduce nuclear power, so that an initial plant might be operating soon after 2020. In July 2006 the new Prime Minister reaffirmed the need to build nuclear power plants, and mentioned French technology.
A 2006 feasibility study suggested that 11.5 GWe of nuclear capacity would be optimum for Poland but possibly unaffordable in the medium term, so the figure of 4.5 GWe by 2030 was then targeted. A 2007 draft energy policy proposes 10 MWe of indigenous nuclear capacity by 2030, providing 10% of electricity then, and an interim 7.5% by 2022. In 2008 the Economy Minister said the first nuclear power plant was proposed by 2023 at the northern town of Zarnowiec. The government then brought the target date for first nuclear power to 2020.
State-owned Polska Grupa Energetyczna SA (PGE), Poland's largest power group by generating capacity, in January 2009 announced plans to build two nuclear power plants, each with a capacity of 3,000 MWe, one in the north and one in the east of the country. PGE estimates that the cost would be EUR 2500-3000/kW. The energy security strategy approved by the Polish government in January 2009 aims at one or two nuclear power plants to be built by PGE, the first by 2020. PGE would hold 51% of the projects as part of a consortium with foreign partners.
Poland had four 440 MWe Russian VVER-440 units under construction in the 1980s at Zarnowiec in the north of the country, but these were cancelled in 1990 and the components were sold, but the site remains a leading contender for at least 1500 MWe of capacity.
In July 2006 Lithuania invited Poland to join with Estonia and Latvia in building a new large reactor in Lithuania, to replace the Ignalina units being shut down at EU insistence. Polish participation would justify a larger and more economical unit such as an EPR. In February 2007 the three Baltic states and Poland agreed to build a new nuclear plant at Ignalina, initially with 3200 MWe. Lithuania as host would have 34% of the project and Poland, Latvia and Estonia 22% each. At least one unit of the project is expected to be operating by 2015. Total cost will be some EUR 6 billion. E.On earlier expressed interest in investing in such a unit. Poland said that unless it has access to at least 1000 MWe of the project, later increased to 1200 MWe, it is not worth building the transmission lines to Poland.
In May 2008 the government formed the Lithuanian Energy Organisation (LEO) to build the new nuclear power plant and also transmission to Sweden and Poland. In July 2008 LEO with energy companies from Latvia, Estonia and Poland (Latvenergo, Eesti Energia and Polska Grupa Energetyczna) established the Visaginas project development company for the new 3200-3400 MWe nuclear power plant. The host country will hold 51% of this and the others 16% each, but the JV will be reconstituted later as a project implementation company with different share split related to long-term equity. Though located close to the Soviet-era Ignalina plant, the new one will be called Visaginas after the nearby town of that name. Lithuania wants at least 34% of the new plant (1090-1160 MWe), Poland wants 1000 MWe, while Latvia and Estonia want 400-600 MWe each.
Meanwhile, and apart from Polish participation in the Baltic states nuclear plant, a high-voltage (400 kV) 1000 MW DC PowerBridge costing EUR 250-300 million to improve transmission capacity between Lithuania and Poland is to be built by 2015. It will be half funded by the EC. This follows inauguration of an interconnector between Estonia and Finland - Estlink, a 150 kV, 350 MW DC cable costing EUR 110 million and also supported by EC funding.
A further major transmission link, of 700 to 1000 MWe is proposed undersea between Sweden and Lithuania, to allow power from the new joint reactor to be exported to Scandinavia.
A public opinion poll in December 2006 carried out for the National Atomic Energy Agency showed that 60% supported construction of nuclear power plants to reduce the country's dependence on natural gas and to reduce CO2 emissions. In contrast to NIMBY attitudes elsewhere, 48% said they would favour such a plant being built in their neighbourhood because of its immediate local benefits including lower power cost.
Poland joined the Global Nuclear Energy Partnership (GNEP) in September 2007.

Belarus
Belarus produces only 32 billion kWh/yr from 7 GWe of plant, mostly gas-fired, giving per capita consumption of 3330 kWh/yr.
The country imports 90% of its gas from Russia - much of it for electricity, and overall aims for 25-30% energy independence, compared with half that now. A single nuclear plant would be expected to reduce gas imports by US$ 200-400 million per year. There have been studies on both a domestic plant using Russian technology, and Belarus participation in a new nuclear unit at Smolensk or Kursk in Russia.
Plans to build a new coal-fired plant were shelved in 2005 because no coal supply could be found, but a 600 MWe coal-fired plant is now under consideration.
In mid 2006 the government approved a plan for the construction of an initial 2000 MWe PWR nuclear power plant in the in the Mogilev region of eastern Belarus. This is expected to provide electricity at half the cost of that from Russian gas (5 billion cubic metres per year for same capacity) and to provide some 30% of the electricity by 2020 at a cost of about EUR 4 billion (January 2008 estimate) on a turnkey basis.
After expressions of interest from international reactor vendors were invited, the energy ministry announced in August 2008 that proposals had been received from Atomstroyexport, Westinghouse-Toshiba and Areva. Anything from USA would need several years for an intergovernmental agreement, and Areva's EPR was noted as being too big for the first plant. In addition, the energy ministry received a proposal from the Guangdong Nuclear Power Corporation. Russia's Atomstroyexport has emerged as the most likely supplier for the 2 x 1000 MWe plant since the others either did not provide all the information required or could not build the plant soon enough. Operation of the first unit is envisaged for 2016 and the second in 2018. Two further units are proposed for operation by 2025. In June 2007 Russia's Eximbank offered a US$ 2 billion credit line to enable purchase of equipment from Russia's Power Machines company as a major part of the overall cost.
In November 2007 a presidential decree defined the organizations responsible for preparing for the construction of the country's first nuclear power plant and budgeted money for engineering and site selection. The candidate sites were Krasnopolyansk and Kukshinovsk (both in the Mogilev region) and Ostrovetsk in the Grodno region, which was chosen in December 2008. Site works are expected to begin early in 2009 and construction possibly in 2010. Ownership of the plant could be partly or wholly private, and the Bulgarian precedent is being watched with interest.
The decree also aims to ensure that nuclear and radiation safety is in line with the recommendations of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). A Directorate for the Construction of a Nuclear Power Plant will be established under the Ministry of Energy. A Nuclear & Radiation Safety Department will also be set up as part of the Emergencies Ministry to act as the state nuclear regulator and licensing authority. The state-run Belnipienergoprom enterprise has been designated as the general designer of the plant and will be responsible for negotiating and signing contracts, carrying out feasibility studies and preparing tender documents.
In May 2009 the government approved a nuclear cooperation agreement with China, which includes nuclear power, joint development of innovative reactor technologies, nuclear safety, radiation protection and environmental protection as well as radiation technologies and their applications, nuclear medicine and radiation therapy. It creates a legal basis for Chinese participation in the nuclear power plant construction in Belarus, probably as consultant, and follows the 2008 proposal from China Guangdong Nuclear Power Group (CGNPC) for this.
(A VVER-1000 unit was earlier being built near Minsk but construction was abandoned in 1988 after the Chernobyl accident.)


Estonia and Latvia
These countries had not been planning to build any nuclear capacity themselves and are participants in a plan to replace the Ignalina reactor in Lithuania with much larger capacity which will serve those three Baltic states and Poland. See Lithuania paper, and Poland section above.
Estonia generates most of its 9.7 billion kWh/yr gross of electricity from oil shale at the 2380 MWe Narva plant.
However, in 2008 Estonia took steps to identify sites for a possible nuclear power plant of its own, and investigate possible involvement in a sixth Finnish plant. The state energy company Eesti Energia announced early in 2009 that it was considering building two 335 MWe IRIS reactors, from Westinghouse, by 2019. A new energy policy adopted by the government in February 2009 requires the establishment of legal and regulatory structures for nuclear power by 2012, and provides for Eesti Energia to build a nuclear power plant of up to 1000 MWe and to cut the contribution from oil shale to 30% by 2025.
Estonia has recently completed a 350 MW DC cable interconnector with Finland - Estlink, costing EUR 110 million and supported by EC funding. Further potential connections are 650 MW between Estonia and Finland, 500 MW and 1000 MW between Lithuania and Poland, and 700 MW between the three Baltic countries and Sweden.
Estonia has two small Soviet naval reactors originally used for submarine training. They date from 1968 and 1983 and were closed down in 1989. They are in Safestor mode and will be dismantled after fifty years. The fuel has been returned to Russia.

Ireland

produces about 28 billion kWh/yr gross from 6 GWe of plant for its population of 4.1 million, giving per capita consumption of 6000 kWh/yr. About half of its electricity is generated by gas, but relative to the rest of Europe it is heavily dependent on oil for its electricity - 7%. Coal provides 27%. Wind provides around 7% from about 800 MWe of capacity. Ireland has a target of 3000 MWe wind capacity by 2020
In 1981 the government considered building a 650 MWe nuclear power plant (PWR) at Carnsore Point, but the plan was dropped as energy demand flattened. It would have required a link across the Irish Sea to the UK to be viable, due to its large size relative to the Irish grid.
A government-commissioned report by
Forfas in April 2006 pointed to the need for Ireland again to consider nuclear power in order "to secure its long-run energy security". Relatively small-scale nuclear plants were envisaged. The report also suggested accelerating plans for greater east-west interconnection with the UK, which would draw on its nuclear capacity and also provide an export channel for any Irish nuclear power development.
In 2007 Ireland's Electricity Supply Board made it known that it would consider a joint venture with a major EU energy company to build nuclear capacity. In April 2008 the Irish Energy Regulator proposed a nationwide debate on the issue of nuclear power to address the country's pending energy crisis. It referred to the need to find an alternative to meet future energy needs since neither wind power or any other renewable energy sources could satisfy demand.



Turkey
In 2007 Turkey produced 191 billion kWh/yr gross from 40.6 GWe of plant. In 2007 49% of electricity came from gas (two thirds of this from Russia, most of the rest from Iran), 28% from coal and 19% from hydro. Demand growth is 8% pa. Per capita consumption has risen from 800 kWh/yr in 1990 to almost 2000 kWh/yr.
Several nuclear power projects have been proposed: In 1970 a feasibility study concerned a 300 MWe plant, in 1973 the electricity authority decided to build a 80 MWe demonstration plant but didn't, then in 1976 the Akkuyu site on the Mediterranean coast near the port of Mersin was licensed for a nuclear plant. In 1980 an attempt to build several plants failed for lack of government financial guarantee, in 1993 a nuclear plant was included in the country's investment program following a request for preliminary proposals in 1992. Then revised tender specifications were not released until December 1996. Bids for a 2000 MWe plant at Akkuyu were received from Westinghouse + Mitsubishi, AECL and Framatome + Siemens. Following the final bid deadline in October 1997, the government delayed its decision no less than eight times between June 1998 and April 2000, when plans were abandoned due to economic circumstances.
Early in 2006 the province of the port city of Sinop on the Black Sea was chosen to host a commercial nuclear power plant. This has the advantage of cooling water temperatures about 5 degrees below those at Akkuyu, allowing about 1% greater power output from any thermal unit. A 100 MWe demonstration plant was to be built there first, then 5000 MWe of further plants to come into service from 2012. Some kind of public-private partnership is envisaged for construction and operation.
In August 2006 the government said it planned to have three nuclear power plants total 4500 MWe operating by 2012-15, a US$ 10.5 billion investment. Discussions have been under way with Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd re two 750 MWe CANDU units as an initial investment. These and the PWR type are apparently preferred. The first units of some 5000 MWe total will be built at Akkuyu, since the site is already licensed, but licensing is proceeding for Sinop.
In 2007 a new bill concerning construction and operation of nuclear power plants and sale of their electricity was passed by parliament and subsequently approved by the President. The bill provides for the Turkish Atomic Energy Authority (TAEK) to set the criteria for building and operating the plant. The Turkish Electricity Trade & Contract Corporation (TETAS) will buy all the power under 15-year contracts. The bill also provides for public institutions to build the plants if other offers are not satisfactory. It also addresses waste management and decommissioning, providing for a National Radioactive Waste Account (URAH) and a Decommissioning Account (ICH) which generators will pay into progressively.
TETAS called for tenders in March 2008, inviting bids for the first nuclear power plant at Akkuyu. TAEK issued specifications, allowing for PWR, BWR or PHWR types of at least 600 MWe and with 40 year service life. Design certification in country of origin was acceptable, allowing TAEK to concentrate on site-specific aspects of the 4800 MWe project. In the event, only one bid was received, from Atomstroyexport in conjunction with Inter Rao (both from Russia) and Park Teknik (Turkey), for an AES-2006 power plant with four 1200 MWe reactors. After some deliberation, TAEK found that it met technical criteria. Following commercial advice from TETAS, a government decision is expected in April 2009. Operation is now expected in 2016.
A mid February 2008 announcement said that preparatory work is under way to build a second nuclear plant at Sinop, along with a EUR 1.7 billion nuclear technology centre. There are proposals to build a further 10 to 12 reactors by 2020.Near Istanbul, eight Organised Industrial Parks comprising 70,000 firms and using 1.5 billion kWh per year have set up a joint venture - IOSBB - to construct the country's first nuclear power plant(s) of 1500 MWe each. Likely sites mentioned include Sinop on Black Sea and Gokova on Mediterranean.
In May 2008 a civil nuclear cooperation agreement with the USA entered into force.


Iran
Iran produced some 201 billion kWh gross in 2006 from 31 GWe of plant, giving per capita consumption of 1943 kWh/yr. 74% of electricity comes from gas, 17% from oil, 9% hydro.
In the mid 1970s construction of two 1,200 MW(e) PWR units was started at Bushehr by Siemens KWU. In 1979 this was suspended. The Islamic Republic of Iran revived the nuclear power program in 1991 with a bilateral agreement with China for the supply of two 300 MW(e) PWR units of Chinese design, similar to the Qinshan power plant, but nothing eventuated.
In 1994, Russia's Minatom and the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran (AEOI) agreed to complete unit 1 of Bushehr nuclear power plant with a VVER-1000 unit, using mostly the infrastructure already in place. This long-awaited 915 MWe plant, being constructed by Atomstroyexport, is nearing completion and is expected to start up late in 2008, with commercial operation mid 2009. A second reactor is planned at the site.
After two years delay due to Iran's reluctance to return spent fuel to Russia without being paid for it, two agreements were signed early in 2005 covering both supply of fresh fuel for the new Bushehr nuclear reactor and its return to Russia after use. Supply of the fuel was originally contingent upon Iran's signing the Additional Protocol to its safeguards agreement with the IAEA. It has done this but not ratified it. The Russian agreement means that Iran's nuclear fuel supply is secured for the foreseeable future, removing any justification for enrichment locally. It also means that the anticipated 6-7 TWh/yr from the new reactor will free up about 1.6 million tonnes of oil or 1800 million cubic metres of gas per year which can be exported for hard currency.
Russia's Atomstroyexport in December 2007 delivered the first of 163 fuel assemblies for the initial core of Bushehr. The fuel is enriched to 3.62% or less and is under full international safeguards. The Russian government had withheld supply as negotiations over Iran's uranium enrichment activities proceeded. The AEOI has announced that a new indigenous 360 MWe nuclear power plant is to be built at Darkhovin in Khuzestan province in the southwest, at the head of the Gulf, where two Framatome 900 MWe plants were about to be constructed in 1970s. It has also invited bids for two units of up to 1600 MWe to be built near Bushehr and come on line about 2016.
Iran also has a major project developing uranium enrichment capability and in November 2007 it announced that the initial target of 3000 centrifuges had been reached - evidently 18 cascades operating. This program is heavily censured by the UN, since no commercial purpose is evident.
See also Iranpaper.
Gulf states, UAE
In December 2006 the six member states of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) - Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Qatar and Oman - announced that the Council was commissioning a study on the peaceful use of nuclear energy. France agreed to work with them on this, and Iran pledged assistance with nuclear technology.
Together they produce 273 billion kWh per year, all from fossil fuels (2003) and 5-7% annual demand growth. In 2006 the UAE produced 66.8 billion kWh gross, 98% of it from gas.
They have total installed capacity of about 80 GWe, with a common grid. There is also a large demand for desalination, currently fuelled by oil and gas. UAE itself has some 18 GWe installed.
In February 2007 the six states agreed with the IAEA to cooperate on a feasibility study for a regional nuclear power and desalination program. Saudi Arabia was leading the investigation and thought that a program might emerge about 2009.
The six nations are all signatories of the NPT and the UAE ratified a safeguards agreement with IAEA in 2003. In mid 2008 it appointed an ambassador to IAEA.
In April 2008 the UAE independently published a comprehensive policy on nuclear energy. This projected escalating electricity demand from 15.5 GWe in 2008 to over 40 GWe in 2020, with natural gas supplies sufficient for only half of this. Imported coal was dismissed as an option due to environmental and energy security implications. Nuclear power "emerged as a proven, environmentally promising and commercially competitive option which could make a significant base-load contribution to the UAE's economy and future energy security." Hence 20 GWe nuclear is envisaged from about 14 plants, with nearly one quarter of this operating by 2020. Two reactors are envisaged for a site between Abu Dhabi and Ruwais, and a third possibly at Al Fujayrah on the Indian Ocean coast.
Accordingly, and as recommended by the IAEA, the UAE established a Nuclear Energy Program Implementation Organization which has set up the Emirates Nuclear Energy Corporation (ENEC) as a public entity, initially funded with $100 million, to evaluate and implement nuclear power plans within UAE.
Secondly, the UAE "will also draft a comprehensive national nuclear law" which establishes a fully independent Federal Authority for Nuclear Regulation (FANR), to be headed by a senior US regulator. Thirdly, it will "offer joint-venture arrangements to foreign investors for the construction and operation of future nuclear power plants" similar to existing Independent Water and Power Producer structures which have 60% owned by the government and 40% by the JV partner(s). The UAE is setting up a model of managing its nuclear power program based on contractor services rather than more slowly establishing indigenous expertise.
"In lieu of domestic enrichment and reprocessing, the UAE would seek to conclude long-term arrangements …. for the secure supply of nuclear fuel, as well as the safe and secure transportation and, if available, the disposal of spent fuel via fuel leasing or other emerging fuel supply arrangements."
The UAE is reported to have invited expressions of interest from nine short-listed companies for construction of its first nuclear power plant. By 2020 it hopes to have three 1500 MWe nuclear plants running and producing electricity at a quarter the cost of that from gas. ENEC has appointed the global full-service program management, engineering, construction and operations firm C2HM Hill to manage the UAE's plans for bringing nuclear power to the country.
See also http://www.usuae123.com/The USA signed a bilateral nuclear energy cooperation agreement with the UAE in January 2009. The UK and Japan have signed Memoranda of Understanding on nuclear energy cooperation with UAE. France has a nuclear cooperation agreement with UAE and has discussed nuclear energy development with Saudi Arabia, offering Atomic Energy Commission (CAE) assistance. The USA has signed memoranda of understanding re nuclear cooperation with Saudi Arabia and Bahrain.
Saudi Arabia is the main electricity producer and consumer in the Gulf States, with 180 TWh production in 2006, fairly evenly split between oil and gas.
Qatar has undertaken its own investigation in to the viability of nuclear power and late in 2008 announced that there was not yet a strong case for proceeding, especially in the absence of modern 300 to 600 MWe reactors being available. Qatar expects to need 7900 MWe of capacity by 2010, along with desalination capacity of 1.3 million cubic metres per day in addition. In 2006 it produced 15.3 TWh, all from gas.
Oman also investigated nuclear power, joined GNEP, and in June 2009 signed a nuclear cooperation agreement with Russia. However, late in 2008 it said that since most of its demand was peak load, nuclear did not seem appropriate, though investment in a nuclear plant in a neighbouring GCC country was possible. In 2006 it produced 13.6 TWh, mostly from gas.
Kuwait is considering its own nuclear program for power and water, with French assistance, and in March 2009 moved to set up a national nuclear energy commission, in cooperation with the IAEA. Most of its 47.6 TWh production in 2006 was from oil.


Jordan
Jordan imports about 95% of its energy needs. It generated 11.6 Billion kWh and imported 0.5 billion kWh of electricity in 2006 for its six million people. It has 2030 MWe of generating capacity and expects to need an additional 1200 MWe by 2015. Also it has a "water deficit" of about 500 million cubic metres per year.
The energy minister has said that the country expects to have a nuclear power plant operating by 2015, for electricity and desalination. Jordan's Committee for Nuclear Strategy has set out a program for nuclear power to provide 30% of electricity by 2030 or 2040, and to provide for exports.
In mid 2008 an agreement between the Jordan Atomic Energy Commission (JAEC) and Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd (AECL) with SNC-Lavalin is to conduct a 3-year feasibility study on building an AECL 740 MWe Enhanced Candu-6 reactor using natural uranium fuel, for power and desalination. In August 2008 it was reported that the government intended to sign up for an Areva reactor, and discussions with Areva in November pointed to an 1100 MWe unit, presumably from Atmea, the Areva-Mitsubishi joint venture which is developing such a unit for countries embarking upon nuclear power programs.
Site selection is planned for 2009, though options appear to be limited to 30 kilometres of Red Sea coast near Aqaba, and JAEC has confirmed that the site will be in this area. JAEC has said that a tender is likely in mid 2010 with construction starting in 2012. Further nuclear projects are likely to focus on desalination.
In December 2008 JAEC signed a memorandum of understanding with Korea Electric Power Corp (KEPCO, parent company of KHNP) to carry out site selection and feasibility study on nuclear power and desalination projects. This is related to Doosan Heavy Industries, Korea's main nuclear equipment maker, carrying out desalination-related work in Jordan under a separate recent agreement, and KEPCO having won a tender to build a 400 MWe gas-fired power plant on a build-own-operate basis. KEPCO and Doosan are reported to be offering Jordan their OPR-1000 nuclear reactor. However, the OPR is designed for 200 Gal seismic acceleration and needs to be upgraded to at least 300 Gal for Turkey and Jordan. Up to 40% of the capacity of any nuclear plant would likely be used for desalination.
In March 2009 the JAEC was evaluating proposals from four reactor vendors: KEPCO, Areva, Atomstroyexport and AECL.
The country has low-cost uranium resources of 140,000 tU plus another 59,000 tU in phosphate deposits, and plans to mine these have been announced by the government. A feasibility study on recovering uranium as a by-product of phosphate production is under way. In October 2008 a joint venture between JAEC and Areva was established to define uranium resources in central Jordan and mine them. Mining at the rate of 2000 t/yr is envisaged from 2012. Areva anticipates that the agreement will lead to further involvement with JAEC.
Jordan has signed nuclear cooperation agreements with the USA, Canada, France, UK and Russia, in respect to both power and desalination, and is seeking help from the IAEA. It has signed a nuclear cooperation agreement with China, covering uranium mining in Jordan and nuclear power, and others with South Korea and Japan related to infrastructure including nuclear power and desalination. Jordan joined the Global Nuclear Energy Partnership (GNEP) in 2007.


Egypt
Egypt produced 115 billion kWh gross in 2006 from 18 GWe of plant, giving per capita consumption of 1350 kWh/yr. In 2006 72% of electricity came from gas, 16% from oil and 11% from hydro. Demand growth is about 7% pa.
In 1964 a 150 MWe nuclear plant with 20,000 m3/day desalination was proposed then in 1974 a 600 MWe plant was proposed. The government's Nuclear Power Plants Authority (NPPA) was then established in 1976, and in 1983 the El Dabaa site lon the Mediterranean coast was selected for a nuclear plant. This plan was aborted following the Chernobyl accident. More recently the NPPA carried out a feasibility study for a cogeneration plant for electricity and desalination, updating it in 2003.
A new agreement on peaceful uses of atomic energy was signed with Russia at the end of 2004, and a further one in March 2008, reviving Egypt's plans for a nuclear power and desalination plant there, supported by Rosatom. . In 2006 a nuclear cooperation agreement was reached with China.
Egypt already has a 1961-vintage 2 MW Russian research reactor serviced by Russia, and a 22 MW Argentinian research reactor partly supported by Russia and which started up in 1997.
On the basis of the feasibility study for a cogeneration plant for electricity and potable water at El-Dabaa, in October 2006 the Minister for Energy announced that a 1000 MWe reactor would be built there by 2015. The US$ 1.5 to 2 billion project would be open to foreign participation.
In December 2008 the Energy & Electricity Ministry announced that following an international tender, it had decided to award a $180 million contract to Bechtel to choose the reactor technology, choose the site for the plant, train operating personnel, and provide technical services over some ten years. However, in May 2009 the government transferred this contract to Worley Parsons. The ministry confirmed that Egypt aims to begin generating nuclear electricity in 2017 at one of five possible sites.


Yemen
It was reported in September 2007 that Yemen had signed an agreement with Texas-based PowerEd Corporation to build 5000 MWe of nuclear power capacity by 2017. However, with 2006 production of 5 billion kWh (corresponding to about 700 MWe of base-load capacity) this did not seem plausible, and the government apparently cancelled the deal.


Israel
Israel produces 52 billion kWh gross per year, about 69% from coal and 30% from imported oil and gas in 2006. It has little reserve capacity. Net exports are 1.8 billion kWh/yr.
In the 1980s the state-owned Israel Electric Corporation (IEC) set aside a site in the southern Negev at Shivta for a nuclear power plant, and discussions were held with France regarding equipment. The question was raised again in 2007 by the National Infrastuctures Ministry and Atomic Energy Commission. A twin reactor nuclear plant of 1200-1500 MWe under IAEA safeguards is envisaged for the site. However, Nuclear Suppliers Group guidelines would constrain any supply of nuclear plant to Israel.
Israel has a 5 MWt research reactor at Nahal Soreq near Tel Aviv under IAEA safeguards and another 70 MWt French-built heavy water reactor at Dimona in the Negev, which is understood to have been used for military plutonium production.
Israel is one of three significant countries which have never been part of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), so any supply of nuclear equipment or fuel from outside the country would be severely constrained. Unlike India and Pakistan, Israel has had no civil nuclear power program.


Syria
Syria produced 37 billion kWh gross in 2006, 51% of this from oil, 38% from gas, 11% from hydro.
Syria had plans in the 1980s to build a VVER-440 reactor but abandoned these after the Chernobyl accident and due to the collapse of Soviet Union. With escalating oil and gas prices, nuclear power is now being considered again.
Meanwhile over 2001-07 Syria built at a remote location what appeared to be a gas-cooled reactor similar to the plutonium production unit at Yongbyong in North Korea. This was destroyed by an Israeli air strike in 2007 and the remains then demolished. Israel claimed that the facility was a 25 MWt gas-cooled reactor with military purpose. The project was clandestine and in breach of Syria's obligations under the NPT.


Tunisia
Tunisia produced 14 billion kWh gross in 2006, almost all of this from gas.
The government is reported to be evaluating the possible construction of a 600 MWe nuclear plant costing US$ 1.14 billion.
In December 2006 a nuclear cooperation agreement was signed with France, focused on nuclear power and desalination, and in April 2008 this was amplified.


Libya
In 2006 Libya produced 24 billion kWh gross of electricity, 59% of this from gas, 41% from oil.
Early in 2007 it was reported that Libya was seeking an agreement for US assistance in building a nuclear power plant for electricity and desalination. In 2006 an agreement with France was signed for peaceful uses of atomic energy and in mid 2007 a memorandum of understanding related to building a mid-sized nuclear plant for seawater desalination. Areva TA would supply this. In 2008 Libya signed a civil nuclear cooperation agreement with Russia.
In 2003 Libya had halted a clandestine program developing uranium enrichment capability, and fully opened itself to IAEA inspections.
Libya has a Russian 10 MW research reactor which is under IAEA safeguards.


Algeria
Algeria produced 35 billion kWh gross of electricity in 2006, almost all from natural gas, and it is a major gas exporter.
In January 2007 Russia signed an agreement to investigate the establishment of nuclear power there. Further nuclear energy cooperation agreements with Argentina, China, France, and the USA followed over 2007-08, the French one coupled with strong commercial interest from Areva.
In February 2009 the government announced that it planned to build its first nuclear power plant to be operating about 2020, and might build a further unit every five years thereafter.
The country has operated two research reactors since 1995, at Draria and Ain Ouessara. One was built by INVAP of Argentina, the other by China.


Morocco
Morocco has growing electricity demand and produced 23 billion kWh gross in 2006. It also has requirements for desalination. In 2006 59% of electricity was supplied by coal, 20% by oil, 13% from gas.
The government has plans for building an initial nuclear power plant in 2016-17 at Sidi Boulbra, and Atomstroyexport is assisting with feasibility studies for this. It is also setting up the infrastructure to support a nuclear power program, including establishment of a nuclear safety authority and a radiation protection authority. Earlier proposals were for a 600 MWe nuclear power plant to be sited between the cities of Essaouira and Asfi.
Morocco has a 2 MW Triga research reactor under construction at Mamoura near Rabat.
For desalination, it has completed a pre-project study with China, at Tan-Tan on the Atlantic coast, using a 10 MWt heating reactor which produces 8000 m3/day of potable water by distillation.
In October 2007 a partnership with France to develop a nuclear power plant near Marrakesh was foreshadowed and a nuclear energy cooperation agreement was signed.


Nigeria
Nigeria produced 23 billion kWh in 2006 from about 6 GWe of plant; 58% of production was from gas, 33 from hydro. It had final consumption of 17 TWh, giving per capita consumption of only 113 kWh/yr.
To address rapidly increasing base-load electricity demand, Nigeria has sought the support of the International Atomic Energy Agency to develop plans for up to 4000 MWe of nuclear capacity by 2025. Nigeria is Africa's most populous country and its power demand is expected to reach 10,000 MWe by 2007 - current grid-supplied capacity is 2600 MWe.
Early in 2008 the Minister of Science and Technology said that the government has reaffirmed its determination to initiate its nuclear energy program by approving a technical framework for it. This is to proceed through manpower and infrastructure development, power reactor design certification, regulatory and licensing approvals, construction and start-up. In mid 2008 the target was moved forward to having up to 5000 MWe of nuclear capacity by 2017.
In March 2009 Russia signed a cooperation agreement with Nigeria, including provision for uranium exploration and mining in the country.
Nigeria's first research reactor was commissioned at Ahmadu Bello University in 2004. It is a 30 kW Chinese Miniature Neutron Source Reactor similar to other Chinese units operating in Ghana, Iran, Syria and China. The IAEA assisted the Nigerian government with the project, to "reinforce and widen the human resource base to sustain nuclear technology" in relation to medical technology, geochemistry, mineral and petrochemical analysis and exploration.


Ghana
Ghana produced 8.4 billion kWh gross in 2006, 67% of this from hydro. In April 2007 the government announced that it planned to introduce nuclear power on energy security grounds. In May 2008 the government said it planned to have 400 MWe of nuclear capacity by 2018. Ghana joined the Global Nuclear Energy Partnership (GNEP) in September 2007.
Ghana has a small Chinese research reactor, operating since 1994.
UgandaUganda's Atomic Energy Bill came into effect in 2008, to regulate the use of ionising radiation and provide a framework to develop nuclear power generation. The government has signed an agreement with IAEA to initiate moves in that direction.


Namibia
Namibia's electricity supply of 3.5 billion kWh in 2006 was more than half supplied by South Africa, which faces supply constraints itself. The 1.6 billion kWh generated domestically was mostly from hydro. A coal-fired plant is planned for Walvis Bay.
Namibia holds about 7% of the world's uranium reserves, which are mined to fuel nuclear power stations around the world. Now the government has committed to a policy position of supplying its own electricity from nuclear power. The country faces severe challenges in power supply.


Azerbaijan
In 2006 the country produced 23.6 billion kWh gross of electricity, 64% of this from gas. The government is planning construction of a 1000-1500 MWe nuclear power reactor, possibly starting 2010 in the Avai region in the south of the country, supporting proposed industrialisation there. In 2009 Russia offered to take part in construction of the plant.
In June 2008, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) issued a preliminary agreement to support a 10-15 megawatt research reactor outside of Baku. The $119-million reactor will be operated by the National Academy of Sciences Institute for Radiation Problems, which specializes in nuclear energy research. Construction is expected to begin in 2012.


Georgia
Georgia generated 7.3 billion kWh gross in 2006, largely from hydro but 27% from natural gas.
It is heavily dependent on Russia for energy supplies and there is some discussion about building a nuclear power plant to assist its energy independence. This could be in collaboration with Azerbaijan or Armenia. In November 2006 Russia threatened to double the price of gas to Georgia. In August 2008 it invaded Georgia.


Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan produced 72 billion kWh gross in 2006 from about 17 GWe of plant, mostly now privatised. Per capita consumption is 3460 kWh/yr. In 2006 70% of electricity came from coal, 12% from gas and 7% from oil. It has no national electricity grid, but a northern grid links to Russia and a southern one links to Kyrgystan and Uzbekistan.
Kazakhstan's main significance is as a source of uranium. It has put in place a variety of international arrangements to add value to this domestically and to supply Japan and China in particular.
The Russian BN-350 fast reactor at Aktau (formerly Shevchenko), on the shore of the Caspian Sea, successfully produced up to 135 MWe of electricity and 80,000 m3/day of potable water over some 27 years until it was closed down in mid 1999. About 60% of its power was used for heat and desalination. It was operated by the Mangyshlak Power Generation Co. (MAEK). The plant was designed as 1000 MWt but never operated at more than 750 MWt and was most recently quoted at 520 MWt, but it established the feasibility and reliability of such cogeneration plants. (In fact, oil/gas boilers were used in conjunction with it, and total desalination capacity through ten multi-effect distillation (MED) units was 120,000 m3/day.)
Kazakh plans for nuclear power include large light-water reactors for the southern region, 300 MWe class units for the western part and smaller cogeneration units in regional cities. There are proposals for a new nuclear power plant near Lake Balkhash in the south of the country, north of Almaty. A feasibility study on building a new 600 MWe nuclear power plant, here or at Aktau, is being undertaken and is due to be completed in 2009. Power from the first 300 MWe unit is expected in 2016, and the second in 2017.
A July 2006 joint venture with Russia's Atomstroyexport envisages development and marketing of innovative small and medium-sized reactors, starting with OKBM's VBER-300 as baseline for Kazakh units. Atomstroyexport expected to build the initial one, but the plan is apparently on hold.
In 2007 a number of high-level agreements on energy cooperation were signed with Japan. These included some relating to uranium supply to Japan, and technical assistance to Kazakhstan in relation to fuel cycle developments and nuclear reactor construction. Kazatomprom said that it aimed to supply 40% of the Japanese market for both natural uranium and fabricated fuel from 2010 - about 4000 tU per year.
A Kazatomprom joint venture with Russia's Tenex, confirmed in 2008, is to extend a small uranium enrichment plant at Angarsk in southern Siberia (this will also be the site of the first international enrichment centre, in which Kazatomprom has a 10% interest). It will eventually be capable of enriching the whole 6000 tonnes of uranium production from Russian mining JVs in Kazakhstan.
Over 2006-08 China Guangdong Nuclear Power Group Holdings (CGNPC) signed a strategic cooperation agreement with Kazatomprom, then an agreement on uranium supply and fuel fabrication, on Chinese participation in Kazakh uranium mining joint ventures and on Kazatomprom investment in China's nuclear power industry. Kazatomprom seeks to become the main uranium and nuclear fuel supplier to CGNPC (accounting for a large share of the new reactors being built in China). A further agreement covers cooperation in uranium mining, fabrication of nuclear fuel for power reactors, long-term trade of natural uranium, generation of nuclear electricity and construction of nuclear power facilities. A framework strategic cooperation agreement was signed with rival China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC) in 2007 and this was followed in 2008 with another on "long-term nuclear cooperation projects" under which CNNC is to invest in a Kazakh uranium mine.
In 2007 Canada's Cameco Corporation signed an agreement with Kazatomprom to investigate setting up a uranium conversion plant, using its technology, and also increasing uranium production at its 60% owned Inkai mine. In 2008 Cameco and Kazatomprom announced the formation of a new company – Ulba Conversion LLP – to build a 12,000 t/yr uranium hexafluoride conversion plant at the Ulba Metallurgical Plant in Ust-Kamenogorsk. Cameco will provide the technology and hold 49% of the project.
The internationally-significant Ulba Metallurgical Plant at Ust Kamenogorsk in the east of the country was commissioned in 1949. It has a variety of functions relevant to uranium, the most basic of which since 1997 is to refine most Kazakh mine output of U3O8. Since 1973 Ulba has produced nuclear fuel pellets from Russian-enriched uranium which are used in Russian and Ukrainian VVER and RBMK reactors. Other exports are to the USA and it plans to market to Asia. Ulba is majority owned by Kazatomprom and 34% by Russia's TVEL. In 2007 a technological assistance agreement was signed with Japan apparently in line with government announcements that it would move towards selling its uranium as fabricated fuel or at least fuel pellets rather than just raw material.
In 2008 Areva signed a strategic agreement (MOU) with Kazatomprom to expand the existing Katco joint venture from mining 1500 tU/yr to 4000 tU/yr (with Areva handling all sales), to draw on Areva’s engineering expertise in a second JV (49% Areva) to install 1200 tonnes per year fuel fabrication capacity at the Ulba Metallurgical Plant, and in a third JV (51% Areva) to market fabricated fuel.
At Kurchatov (aka Semipalatinsk-21) on the former Semipalatinsk nuclear test site three research reactors owned by the National Nuclear Centre are operated by the Institute of Atomic Energy. A fourth is at Almaty. The three larger ones are tank-type units of 6, 10 and 60 MW, the newest is a 400 kW high-temperature gas reactor. All were supplied by Russia and use high-enriched fuel.
Kazakhstan joined the Global Nuclear Energy Partnership (GNEP) in September 2007.
See also Kazakhstan paper.
MongoliaRussia is reported to be examining the feasibility of building nuclear power plants in Mongolia, and in April 2008 Russia and Mongolia signed a high-level agreement to cooperate in identifying and developing Mongolia's uranium resources. The country’s gross electricity production in 2006 was 3.6 billion kWh.
Chile
Chile imports over 70% of its energy, mostly as hydrocarbons. It produced 57.6 billion kWh gross in 2006 from some 11 GWe of plant and imported 2.3 billion kWh. There is a need to build a further 5 - 7 GWe by 2020 to secure a measure of energy security as Argentina cuts back gas supplies. Per capita consumption is 2760 kWh/yr. 40-60% of electricity comes from hydro, depending on how much rain it has and in 2006 20% came from imported natural gas. Up to 20% comes from coal and there are proposals for new coal-fired plants.
In February 2007 the Energy Ministry announced that it was beginning technical studies into the development of nuclear power. A major business group has already had discussions with Areva about building a nuclear power plant to connect Chile's northern and central power grids. In November 2007 the President asked the Energy Minister to prepare new studies regarding the country's nuclear energy options for the next administration.


Venezuela
Venezuela produced 110 billion kWh gross in 2006, 28% of this from fossil fuels, 72% from hydro.
The National Assembly is working on legislation which includes nuclear power as an option. The President announced in November 2007 that the country will pursue a nuclear power program, inspired by Brazil and Argentina. Late in 2008 he announced that this would be with Russian help, and the first unit would be in the northwestern province of Sulia. A civil nuclear cooperation agreement was signed with Russia in November.
Bangladesh
Bangladesh produced 24.3 billion kWh gross in 2006 from some 4 GWe of plant, giving per capita consumption of 114 kWh/yr. 88% of electricity comes from natural gas. Electricity demand is now rising rapidly and the government aims to increase capacity to 7 GWe by 2014.
Building a nuclear power plant in the west of the country was proposed in 1961. Since then a number of feasibility reports have affirmed the technical and economic feasibility. The Rooppur site in Pabna district was selected in 1963 and land was acquired. The government gave formal approval for a succession of plant proposals, then after independence a 125 MWe nuclear power plant proposal was approved in 1980 but not built.
With growth in demand and grid capacity since then, a much larger plant looked feasible, and the government in 1999 expressed its firm commitment to build this Rooppur plant. In 2001 it adopted a national Nuclear Power Action Plan and in 2005 it signed a nuclear cooperation agreement with China. In 2007 the Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission proposed two 500 MWe nuclear reactors for Rooppur by 2015, quoting likely costs of US$ 0.9-1.2 billion for a 600 MWe unit and US$ 1.5-2.0 billion for 1000 MWe. In April 2008 the government reiterated its intention to work with China in building the Rooppur plant and China offered funding for the project. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has approved a Technical Assistance Project for Rooppur Nuclear Power Plant to be initiated between 2009 and 2011, and it now appears that a 600 MWe plant is envisaged.
Russia, China and South Korea had earlier offered financial and technical help to establish nuclear power, and in March 2009 Russia made a formal proposal to build a nuclear power plant in the country, evidently a 600-1000 MWe plant at Rooppur. In May 2009 a bilateral nuclear cooperation agreement was signed with Russia.
The country has had a Triga 3 MW research reactor operational since 1986.


Indonesia
Indonesia's population of 242 million is served by power generation capacity of only 21.4 GWe, producing 133 billion kWh/yr (2006). In 2006 44% came from brown coal, 29% from oil, 15% from gas, 7% from hydro and 5% from geothermal. It has per capita electricity consumption: 475 kWh/yr.
With an industrial production growth rate of 10.5%, electricity demand is estimated to reach 175 TWh in 2013 and 450 billion kWh in 2026. At present a low reserve margin with poor power plant availability results in frequent blackouts.
About 45% of Indonesia's electricity is generated by oil and gas, so as well as catering for growth in demand in its most populous region, the move to nuclear power will free up oil for export.
Three research reactors are operated by the National Atomic Energy Agency (BATAN), the third of them being intended to support the introduction of nuclear power to the country. It is a 30 MW (thermal) unit at the Serpong Nuclear Facility near Jakarta, and started up in 1987.
Following earlier tentative proposals, in 1989 the government initiated a study focused on the Muria Peninsula in central Java and carried out by the National Atomic Energy Agency (BATAN). It led to a comprehensive feasibility study for a 7000 MWe plant, completed in 1996, with Ujung Lemahabang as the specific site, selected for its tectonic stability. Plans for the initial plant on the Muria Peninsula in central Java were then deferred indefinitely early in 1997.
Then a 2001 power generation strategy showed that introduction of a nuclear plant on the Java-Bali grid would be possible in 2016 for 2 GWe rising to 6-7 GWe in 2025, using proven 1000 MWe technology with 85% capacity factor and investment cost $2000/kWe. The Java-Bali interconnected system accounts for more than three quarters of Indonesia's electricity demand.
Late in 2003 BATAN was reported to have narrowed the choice of plant to two: a South Korean 1000 MWe pressurised water reactor or a Canadian 700 MWe pressurised heavy water reactor - probably the KSNP+ (OPR-1000) and ACR-700 respectively. Subsequent reports point to the Korean OPR-1000 option and suggest an increasing sense of urgency due to power shortages.
Under the 2006 Law on Nuclear Reactors the project may be given to an Independent Power Producer to build and operate, on one of three sites on the central north coast of Java. Plans are to call tenders in 2008 for two 1000 MWe units, Muria 1 & 2, leading to decision in 2010 with construction starting soon after and commercial operation from 2016 and 2017. Fuel services will be purchased from abroad and fuel would preferably be leased. Used fuel would be stored centrally in the medium term. Tenders for Muria units 3 & 4 are expected to be called for in 2016, for operation from 2023.
The government has said that it has $8 billion earmarked for four nuclear plants of total 6 GWe to be in operation by 2025. Under current plans it aims to meet 2% of power demand from nuclear by 2017. It is anticipated that nuclear generation cost would be about 4 cents/kWh (US) compared with 7 c/kWh for oil and gas.
In July 2007 Korea Electric Power Corp. and Korea Hydro & Nuclear Power Co. (KHNP) signed a memorandum of understanding with Indonesia's PT Medco Energi Internasional to progress a feasibility study on building two 1000 MWe OPR-1000 units from KHNP at a cost of US$ 3 billion. This was part of a wider energy collaboration.
In addition, Batan has undertaken a pre-feasibility study for a small Korean SMART reactor for power and desalination on Madura. However, this awaits the building of a reference plant in Korea. Also the province of Gorontalo on Sulawesi is reported to be considering a floating nuclear power plant from Russia, and late in 2007 a cooperation agreement with Japan was signed, envisaging its help in building and operating nuclear power plants.
The Japanese and Indonesian governments signed a cooperation agreement in November 2007 relating to assistance to be provided for the preparation, planning, and promotion of Indonesia's nuclear power development and assistance for public relations activities.
The IAEA is reviewing the safety aspects of both Muria and Madura proposals, with Indonesia's Nuclear Technology Supervisory Agency.
During the 1980s Indonesia trained many technical people in anticipation of nuclear power development then, many of these are still available for the new project.
Indonesia has several nuclear facilities in operation. In addition to three research reactors, it has front-end capabilities in ore processing, conversion and fuel fabrication, all at a laboratory scale. There have been no experiments in reprocessing, but there is a radwaste program for spent fuel from the research reactors.
There are some uranium resources in Kalimantan.
Indonesia's safeguards agreement with the IAEA under the NPT entered force in 1980 and the Additional Protocol entered force in 1999. In 1997 it signed the Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and Radioactive Waste Management.


Philippines
The Philippines produced 56.7 billion kWh gross of electricity in 2006, 27% came from coal, 29% from gas, 8% from oil, 17.5% from hydro and 18.5% from geothermal.
In response to the 1973 oil crisis, the Philippines decided to build the two-unit Bataan Nuclear Power Plant (BNPP). Construction of Bataan 1 - a 621 MWe Westinghouse pressurized water reactor - began in 1976 and it was completed in 1984 at a cost of $460 million. However, due to financial issues and safety concerns related to earthquakes, the plant was never loaded with fuel or operated. In April 2007, the Philippine government made the final payment for the plant. The government was considering converting it into a natural gas-fired power plant, but this was impractical, and the plant has simply been maintained.
In 2007 the Philippines Department of Energy (DOE) set up a project to study the development of nuclear energy, in the context of an overall energy plan for the country. Nuclear energy would be considered in order to reduce the country's dependency on imported oil and coal. In its 2008 update of the national energy plan, 600 MWe was projected on line in 2025, with further 600 MWe increments in 2027, 2030 and 2034 to give 2400 MWe.
In 2008 an IAEA mission commissioned by the government advised that Bataan-1 could be refurbished and economically and safely be operated for 30 years. Refurbishment is estimated to cost $800 million. The IAEA was also to recommend a policy framework for nuclear power development in the country. In December 2008 the National Power Corporation announced that it would commission Korea Electric Power Corp (KEPCO, parent company of KHNP) to conduct an 18-month feasibility study on commissioning Bataan. One factor in choosing KEPCO for this was its experience with Kori-2, a very similar unit in Korea.
The government is establishing a working group with a view to proceeding along the same lines as Thailand, retaining engineering consultants to guide progress. The Department of Energy is considering how to rebuild local skills in nuclear sciences and engineering. The state-owned National Power Corporation originally had 710 nuclear engineers who were trained by Westinghouse and Ebasco Overseas Corp. in the 1980s, but this has declined to about one hundred, many of whom are due to retire in the next five to ten years.
The Philippines' safeguards agreement with the IAEA under the NPT entered force in 1974 and it has signed but not ratified the Additional Protocol. In 1998 it signed the Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and Radioactive Waste Management.


Vietnam
Vietnam produced 56.5 billion kWh gross in 2006 from 11.4 GWe of plant, giving per capita consumption of 445 kWh/yr. In 2006 42% of electricity came from hydro, 37% from gas, 17% from coal, and demand is growing rapidly. In mid 2008 capacity was about 12.5 GWe and demand significantly higher than this, resulting in rationing. According to the government at the end of 2006, electricity demand is expected to grow 15% pa to 2010 and it plans to increase generating capacity to 25 GWe.
In the early 1980s two preliminary nuclear power studies were undertaken, followed by another which reported in 1995 that: "Around the year 2015, when electricity demand reaches more than 100 billion kWh, nuclear power should be introduced for satisfying the continuous growth in the country's electricity demand in that time and beyond".
More recently, a national energy plan approved by Vietnam's National Assembly included at least 2000 MWe of nuclear power capacity to be commenced by 2010. This followed a feasibility study in 2002, and establishment of nuclear cooperation agreements with Russia, South Korea and the USA, the first related principally to Vietnam's 500 kW Da Lat research reactor.
In February 2006 the government announced that a 2000 MWe nuclear power plant would be on line by 2020. A feasibility study for this due to be completed in mid 2009 and formal approval will then be required to open a bidding process with a view to construction start in 2011 and commissioning in 2017. This general target was confirmed in a nuclear power development plan approved by the government in August 2007, with the target being raised to a total of 8000 MWe nuclear by 2025. A general law on nuclear energy was passed in mid 2008, and a comprehensive legal and regulatory framework is being developed. As of October 2008, two reactors total 2000 MWe are planned for the southern Ninh Thuan province to be constructed from 2014 and come into operation from about 2018, followed by another 2000 MWe at Vinh Hai. These plants would be followed by a further 6000 MWe by 2030. Negotiations with Westinghouse are reported, and in February 2009 China Guangdong Nuclear Power Group signed a nuclear energy cooperation agreement.
South Korea has expressed interest in bidding for the project, and its Ministry of Education, Science & Technology in 2006 committed to long-term cooperation on nuclear energy. In May 2008 a nuclear assistance agreement was signed with Japan. There are also agreements with France, China and Canada. In June 2008 the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission and the Vietnam Agency for Radiation and Nuclear Safety & Control officially signed a cooperation agreement to share technical information on nuclear energy. The accord calls for an exchange of information about regulations, environmental impact and safety of nuclear sites.
The Vietnam Atomic Energy Commission was established in 1976 and is under the Ministry of Science & Technology. Vietnam Electricity will be the company responsible for building and operating the plants.
Vietnam's safeguards agreement with the IAEA under the NPT entered force in 1990 and it has signed but not ratified the Additional Protocol.


Thailand
Peak demand is about 20 GWe and in 2006 some 139 billion kWh gross was generated. About 68% was from natural gas, 18% from coal. Installed capacity is about 28 GWe, half of it gas-fired. Forecast peak demand in 2021 is almost 50 GWe. Thailand has the potential to be regional electricity hub for ASEAN countries.
Tentative plans to embark on a nuclear power program have been revived by a forecast growth in electricity demand of 7 per cent per year for the next twenty years. Capacity requirement in 2016 is forecast at 48 GWe. As gas prices rise, the Atomic Energy Commission and its Office of Atoms for Peace (OAP) however are assessing the feasibility of nuclear power, and any initial plants would probably be built by the Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand (EGAT). Independent power producers have also expressed interest. The Ministry of Science & Technology is responsible for the issue.
Thailand's National Energy Policy Council commissioned a feasibility study for a nuclear power plant in the country, and among the options in the draft power development plan for 2007-2021 was the construction of 5000 MWe of nuclear generating capacity, starting up in 2020-21.
In June 2007 the Energy Minister announced that EGAT will proceed with plans to build a 4000 MWe nuclear power plant, and has budgeted some US$ 53 million between 2008 and 2011 on preparatory work, half of it coming from oil revenues. Construction will commence in 2014, with four reactors to operate from 2020. The capital cost is expected to be US$ 6 billion and electricity cost about USD 6 cents/kWh, slightly less than from coal. The government plans to establish safety and regulatory infrastructure by 2014 and commissioned a formal 3-year feasibility study early in 2008. Then in October 2008 the engineering firm Burns & Roe was commissioned to undertake a 20-month study to recommend siting, technology and reactor size for the firs plant. The project will then go out to tender with a view to starting construction in 2014. The government plans to have 2000 MWe nuclear on line in 2020 and double that two years later.
Thailand has had an operating research reactor since 1977 and a larger one is under construction.
Thailand's safeguards agreement with the IAEA under the NPT entered force in 1974 and it has signed but not ratified the Additional Protocol.


Malaysia
Malaysia produced 91.6 billion kWh gross in 2006, 64% of this from gas, 25% from coal, 8% from hydro. It has about 24 GWe of capacity, a 55% increase over two years to 2005. Government policy is to reduce reliance on natural gas by building coal-fired capacity.
A comprehensive energy policy study including consideration of nuclear power will be completed before 2010. The main state-owned utility Tenaga Nasional Bhd (TNB) is tentatively in favour of nuclear power and in August 2006 the Malaysian Nuclear Licensing Board said that plans for nuclear power after 2020 should be brought forward and two reactors built much sooner. This intention has since been reiterated from the Ministry of Science, Technology & Innovation. In July 2008 the government directed TNB to set up a task force to look at the feasibility of nuclear power, the study likely to take two years. In September the government announced that it had no option but to commission nuclear power due to high fossil fuel prices, and set 2023 as target date. It then sent a draft energy policy blueprint back to the Energy Commission as it was not comprehensive enough.
The Malaysian Institute for Nuclear Technology Research has operated a 1 MW Triga research reactor since 1982. In April 2007 MINT was renamed the Malaysian Nuclear Agency (or Nuclear Malaysia) to reflect its role in promoting the peaceful uses of atomic energy.
Malaysia's safeguards agreement with the IAEA under the NPT entered force in 1972 and it has signed but not ratified the Additional Protocol.
Australia
Australia produced 255 billion kWh from 46 GWe of capacity in 2006, with 23 billion kWh/yr being embedded in aluminium exports. Final consumption was 187 billion kWh, hence per capita consumption (net of Al exports) is 9100 kWh/yr. Low-cost power is a competitive advantage of the country. 80% of electricity comes from coal-fired plant, 12% from gas and 7% from hydro. This gives it a high output of CO2, which is the main reason that discussion has started on possible nuclear generation in the future. Australia joined the Global Nuclear Energy Partnership (GNEP) in September 2007.
Australia has operated a research reactor since 1956 and has now commissioned its 20 MWt replacement.
About 1970 the Australian government sought tenders for building a nuclear power reactor at Jervis Bay, NSW. Designs from UK, USA, Germany and Canada were short listed, but a change in leadership led to the project being cancelled in 1972. However, until 1983 there were various plans and proposals for building an enrichment plant.
At the end of 2006 the report of the Prime Minster's expert taskforce considering nuclear power was released. It said nuclear power would be 20-50% more expensive than coal-fired power and (with renewables) it would only be competitive if "low to moderate" costs are imposed on carbon emissions (A$ 15-40 - US$ 12-30 - per tonne CO2). "Nuclear power is the least-cost low-emission technology that can provide base-load power" and has low life cycle impacts environmentally. The first nuclear plants could be running in 15 years, and looking beyond that, 25 reactors at coastal sites might be supplying one third of Australia's (doubled) electricity demand by 2050. Certainly "the challenge to contain and reduce greenhouse gas emissions would be considerably eased by investment in nuclear plants." "Emission reductions from nuclear power could reach 8 to 18% of national emissions in 2050".


New Zealand
New Zealand produces some 44 billion kWh/yr from 8.9 GWe of plant. For 4.17 million people, average per capita consumption is thus about 9300 kWh/yr or 7900 kWh if aluminium smelting is treated as largely an electricity export. In 2007, 53% of electricity came from hydro.
New Zealand has depended primarily on hydro-electric power for its electricity for many years, but scope for expansion is limited and even the reliability of present capacity depends on capricious rainfall, as in 2001 and 2003.
The last major hydro scheme was raising the level of Lake Manapouri to provide low-cost power for NZAS aluminium smelter in the South Island.
Hydro output has not increased over the last 15 years, and that growth in demand since 1990 has been mostly met by gas-fired plant, at least until the 1000 MWe state-owned Huntly plant shifted to using coal for 80% of its energy. However, its operation is severely constrained in hot weather.
Of 41 billion kWh of electricity generated in NZ in 2003, 58% was hydro, 24.5% gas, 7.6% coal, 6.7% geothermal, 2% wind and 1.3% biomass. The power is produced from 8.4 GWe capacity, including 5.25 GWe hydro, 1.38 GWe gas-fired, 1.0 GWe coal-fired and 0.42 GWe geothermal - mainly run as base-load (2002 data). In 2004 there was 0.17 GWe of wind capacity installed and 0.07 GWe committed.
In 1968 the national power plan first identified the likely need for nuclear power in NZ a decade or more ahead, since readily-developed hydro-electric sites had been utilised. Plans were made and a site at Oyster Point on the Kaipara harbour near Auckland was reserved for the first plant. Four 250 MWe reactors were envisaged, to supply 80% of Auckland's needs by 1990. But then the Maui gas field was discovered, along with coal reserves near Huntly, and the project was abandoned by 1972.
In 1976 a Royal Commission was set up to enquire further into the question. Its 1978 report said that there was no immediate need for NZ to embark upon a nuclear power program, but suggested that early in 21st century "a significant nuclear programme should be economically possible."

History
As the father of nuclear physics, Ernest Rutherford is credited with splitting the atom in 1917.[12] His team in England bombarded nitrogen with naturally occurring alpha particles from radioactive material and observed a proton emitted with energy higher than the alpha particle. In 1932 two of his students John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton, working under Rutherford's direction, attempted to split the atomic nucleus by entirely artificial means, using a particle accelerator to bombard lithium with protons, thereby producing two helium nuclei.[13]

After James Chadwick discovered the neutron in 1932, nuclear fission was first experimentally achieved by Enrico Fermi in 1934 in Rome, when his team bombarded uranium with neutrons.[14] In 1938, German chemists Otto Hahn[15] and Fritz Strassmann, along with Austrian physicists Lise Meitner[16] and Meitner's nephew, Otto Robert Frisch,[17] conducted experiments with the products of neutron-bombarded uranium. They determined that the relatively tiny neutron split the nucleus of the massive uranium atoms into two roughly equal pieces, which was a surprising result. Numerous scientists, including Leo Szilard who was one of the first, recognized that if fission reactions released additional neutrons, a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction could result. This spurred scientists in many countries (including the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, and the Soviet Union) to petition their governments for support of nuclear fission research.

In the United States, where Fermi and Szilard had both emigrated, this led to the creation of the first man-made reactor, known as Chicago Pile-1, which achieved criticality on December 2, 1942. This work became part of the Manhattan Project, which built large reactors at the Hanford Site (formerly the town of Hanford, Washington) to breed plutonium for use in the first nuclear weapons, which were used on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. A parallel uranium enrichment effort also was pursued.

After World War II, the fear that reactor research would encourage the rapid spread of nuclear weapons and technology[vague], combined with what many scientists[who?] thought would be a long road of development, created a situation in which the government attempted to keep reactor research under strict government control and classification. In addition, most[which?] reactor research centered on purely military purposes. There was an immediate[when?] arms and development race when the United States military[who?] refused to follow the advice of its own scientific community to form an international cooperative to share information and control nuclear materials[citation needed]. By 2006, things have come full circle with the Global Nuclear Energy Partnership (see below.)[citation needed]

Electricity was generated for the first time by a nuclear reactor on December 20, 1951, at the EBR-I experimental station near Arco, Idaho, which initially produced about 100 kW (the Arco Reactor was also the first to experience partial meltdown, in 1955). In 1952, a report by the Paley Commission (The President's Materials Policy Commission) for President Harry Truman made a "relatively pessimistic" assessment of nuclear power, and called for "aggressive research in the whole field of solar energy."[18] A December 1953 speech by President Dwight Eisenhower, "Atoms for Peace," emphasized the useful harnessing of the atom and set the U.S. on a course of strong government support for international use of nuclear power

Early years
On June 27, 1954, the USSR's Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant became the world's first nuclear power plant to generate electricity for a power grid, and produced around 5 megawatts of electric power.[20][21]

Later in 1954, Lewis Strauss, then chairman of the United States Atomic Energy Commission (U.S. AEC, forerunner of the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission and the United States Department of Energy) spoke of electricity in the future being "too cheap to meter."[22] Strauss was referring to hydrogen fusion[23][24]- which was secretly being developed as part of Project Sherwood at the time - but Strauss's statement was interpreted as a promise of very cheap energy from nuclear fission. The U.S. AEC itself had issued far more conservative testimony regarding nuclear fission to the U.S. Congress only months before, projecting that "costs can be brought down... [to]... about the same as the cost of electricity from conventional sources..." Significant disappointment would develop later on, when the new nuclear plants did not provide energy "too cheap to meter."

In 1955 the United Nations' "First Geneva Conference", then the world's largest gathering of scientists and engineers, met to explore the technology. In 1957 EURATOM was launched alongside the European Economic Community (the latter is now the European Union). The same year also saw the launch of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).

The world's first commercial nuclear power station, Calder Hall in Sellafield, England was opened in 1956 with an initial capacity of 50 MW (later 200 MW).[19][25] The first commercial nuclear generator to become operational in the United States was the Shippingport Reactor (Pennsylvania, December, 1957).

One of the first organizations to develop nuclear power was the U.S. Navy, for the purpose of propelling submarines and aircraft carriers. It has a good record in nuclear safety, perhaps because of the stringent demands of Admiral Hyman G. Rickover, who was the driving force behind nuclear marine propulsion as well as the Shippingport Reactor (Alvin Radkowsky was chief scientist at the U.S. Navy nuclear propulsion division, and was involved with the latter). The U.S. Navy has operated more nuclear reactors than any other entity, including the Soviet Navy,[citation needed][dubious – discuss] with no publicly known major incidents. The first nuclear-powered submarine, USS Nautilus (SSN-571), was put to sea in December 1954.[26] Two U.S. nuclear submarines, USS Scorpion and USS Thresher, have been lost at sea. These vessels were both lost due to malfunctions in systems not related to the reactor plants. Also, the sites are monitored and no known leakage has occurred from the onboard reactors.

The United States Army also had a nuclear power program, beginning in 1954. The SM-1 Nuclear Power Plant, at Ft. Belvoir, Va., was the first power reactor in the US to supply electrical energy to a commercial grid (VEPCO), in April 1957, before Shippingport.

Enrico Fermi and Leó Szilárd in 1955 shared U.S. Patent 2,708,656 for the nuclear reactor, belatedly granted for the work they had done during the Manhattan Project.

Development

Installed nuclear capacity initially rose relatively quickly, rising from less than 1 gigawatt (GW) in 1960 to 100 GW in the late 1970s, and 300 GW in the late 1980s. Since the late 1980s worldwide capacity has risen much more slowly, reaching 366 GW in 2005. Between around 1970 and 1990, more than 50 GW of capacity was under construction (peaking at over 150 GW in the late 70s and early 80s) — in 2005, around 25 GW of new capacity was planned. More than two-thirds of all nuclear plants ordered after January 1970 were eventually cancelled.[26] A total of 63 nuclear units were canceled in the USA between 1975 and 1980.[27]


Washington Public Power Supply System Nuclear Power Plants 3 and 5 were never completed.During the 1970s and 1980s rising economic costs (related to extended construction times largely due to regulatory changes and pressure-group litigation)[28] and falling fossil fuel prices made nuclear power plants then under construction less attractive. In the 1980s (U.S.) and 1990s (Europe), flat load growth and electricity liberalization also made the addition of large new baseload capacity unattractive.

The 1973 oil crisis had a significant effect on countries, such as France and Japan, which had relied more heavily on oil for electric generation (39% and 73% respectively) to invest in nuclear power.[29][30] Today, nuclear power supplies about 80% and 30% of the electricity in those countries, respectively.

A general movement against nuclear power arose during the last third of the 20th century, based on the fear of a possible nuclear accident as well as the history of accidents, fears of radiation as well as the history of radiation of the public, nuclear proliferation, and on the opposition to nuclear waste production, transport and lack of any final storage plans. Perceived risks on the citizens' health and safety, the 1979 accident at Three Mile Island and the 1986 Chernobyl disaster played a part in stopping new plant construction in many countries,[31] although the public policy organization Brookings Institution suggests that new nuclear units have not been ordered in the U.S. because the Institution's research concludes they cost 15–30% more over their lifetime than conventional coal and natural gas fired plants.[32]

Unlike the Three Mile Island accident, the much more serious Chernobyl accident did not increase regulations affecting Western reactors since the Chernobyl reactors were of the problematic RBMK design only used in the Soviet Union, for example lacking "robust" containment buildings.[33] Many of these reactors are still in use today. However, changes were made in both the reactors themselves (use of low enriched uranium) and in the control system (prevention of disabling safety systems) to reduce the possibility of a duplicate accident.

An international organization to promote safety awareness and professional development on operators in nuclear facilities was created: WANO; World Association of Nuclear Operators.

Opposition in Ireland, and Poland prevented nuclear programs there, while Austria (1978), Sweden (1980) and Italy (1987) (influenced by Chernobyl) voted in referendums to oppose or phase out nuclear power. In July 2009, the Italian Parliament passed a law that canceled the results of an earlier referendum and allowed the immediate start of the Italian nuclear program.[34]